Ethical ignorance

The Is-Ought Gap

Hume discusses the problem in book III, part I, section I of his A Treatise of Human Nature (1739):

In every system of morality, which I have hitherto met with, I have always remark'd, that the author proceeds for some time in the ordinary ways of reasoning, and establishes the being of a God, or makes observations concerning human affairs; when all of a sudden I am surpriz'd to find, that instead of the usual copulations of propositions, is, and is not, I meet with no proposition that is not connected with an ought, or an ought not.

This change is imperceptible; but is however, of the last consequence. For as this ought, or ought not, expresses some new relation or affirmation, 'tis necessary that it shou'd be observ'd and explain'd; and at the same time that a reason should be given; for what seems altogether inconceivable, how this new relation can be a deduction from others, which are entirely different from it.

Hume is simply pointing out that no observations of the state of the world (what is) can give us guidance on morality (what we ought to do). People make links but are never able to demonstrate the logical connections when challenged.

Ethical Egoism

The idea that acting in our own best interest is somehow also in the best interests of others is an attractive on as it allows selfish behaviour to be justified. Some philosophers like Hobbes assert egoist positions in a spirit of regret, whereas thinkers like Nietzsche and Rand celebrate the strong willed individual who is best able to pursue his or her own goals. Fuller notes are here. 

Descartes Meditation 1 - some notes

Notes on Meditation 1 are here. Look again at this meditation with the criticisms in mind. Is Descartes fundamentally wrong from the start or is his methodology at least partially productive?










Rene Descarpes doubts his own memory.

Mirror Neurons

Mirror neurons were first observed in the late 1980s and are still the subject of intense scientific study and speculation. Put simply mirror neurons fire in brains when actions are observed or when someone is observed being touched. They allow us to put ourselves in other people's shoes and imagine actions and feelings from their point of view. 

This is ability to tell what another person or animal is up to is very useful as a way of avoiding predators but it is even more useful in promoting empathy. If we can see things from someone else's point of view we are more likely to respond positively to them. Social interactions are also much easier if you have some idea what others are likely to be thinking. Mirror neurons also explain why yawning is contagious.  


There is a very full Wikipedia account of mirror neurons here.

Moral-Baby Experiments

There is a very long article on the moral life of babies here. The section on different coloured shapes is on page 4 under the heading Moral-Baby Experiments. The whole article is worth reading, both for its insights into an early sense of fair play and for the details of how researchers find out a little of what babies are thinking.

Dogs and fair play

Dogs refuse to play ball if they are treated unfairly according to this Guardian article which is a report on the findings of an article in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. As the article points out the dogs' behaviour could be the result of envy rather than a sense of fair play. Other recent research has pointed out that dogs are highly sensitive to human behavioural signals and so a sense of fair play could have developed from living amongst primates.

The ring of Gyges

In Plato's Republic one of the characters mentions a magic ring that confers the power of invisibility. He suggests that someone in possession of such a ring would use it for self-interested reasons only.

Plato argues that this view ignores the state of the soul of the person who acts selfishly. We often experience internal, mental conflict between what we instinctively want to do and what we think we ought to do.

For Plato our souls are both rational and driven by desires and we are happiest when there is no conflict between these two parts. Desires can of often lead us into trouble and we have to curb them with reason.

An immoral person is some whose desires overrule his reason. Such a person will attempt to fulfil his desires regardless of whether they represent what that person needs.

When we are ruled by desire we are unable to see what is good and we often think that getting what we want will be better than acting morally. For Plato this is simply a mistake.

When reason is in charge we act virtuously. This has three effects.

• We know what is morally right and good.
• We are motivated to act morally and not immorally.
• We are happier as we do not suffer inner conflict.

Is Plato right about our desires? Do they always lead us into trouble?
Is he right about reason? Can we always use it to tell right from wrong?

Compare the responses of Gollum and Frodo Baggins in The Lord of the Rings when they were given a ring of invisibility.

Hume - Essay Concerning Human Understanding

Summaries of Hume's Essay Concerning Human Understanding can be found by clicking on the following links  

Of the Origin of Ideas 

Of the Association of Ideas

Sceptical Doubts

Solution to Sceptical Doubts

Of Probability

Necessary Connection

Of Liberty and Necessity

The Selfish Gene

There is a good Wikipedia article on this here. There is a very full discussion of biological altruism here. The section on But is it ‘Real’ Altruism? is very useful. Today's New Scientist reveals that evolutionary biologists are arguing once again about this topic.

For more on ideas about pleasure and pain read this article on the Utilitarian philosopher Jeremy Bentham

The Matrix and dualism

There is a very full discussion of the philosophical problems raised by this film here. Look in particular at the section headed Ghosts in the Machine: The Matrix as the Cartesian Evil Demon. There are also some interesting links and references at the bottom of the page that you may wish to follow up.